The Relationship Between the Individual and Society: Perspectives and Interconnected Realities

The individual and society are inseparable entities whose interaction forms the very foundation of human civilization. There will be no society if there were no people talking to one another, acting, interacting, cooperating with one another. I idea of society implies on mutual give-and-take by the individual concerned either in the form of mutual glances, waving of hand, greeting, handshake of festival greeting, talking to phone and participating in public affair.

1. Historical and Philosophical Foundations

Understanding the intricate relationship between the individual and society requires exploring its historical and philosophical roots. Long before psychology emerged as a formal discipline, philosophers and social theorists grappled with fundamental questions about human nature, freedom, morality, and the role of community. Origins of core psychological questions:

• How do morality, personality, and consciousness develop in the social world?
• Is the individual autonomous or shaped by external forces?
• Is society an extension of the self, or a necessary structure imposed on human instincts?

1.1 Ancient Philosophy: Self, Morality, and the Common Good

1.1.1 Plato: The Ideal Society and the Ordered Soul

• Plato (427–347 BCE) believed that both the individual and the society must function harmoniously for justice and well-being to exist.
• He proposed that just as the human soul comprises reason, spirit, and appetite, a just society is made up of rulers (wisdom), auxiliaries (courage), and producers (desire). Each part must fulfill its role for balance and justice to emerge.
• His vision also suggests that society’s design plays a role in shaping individual behavior and virtue — a precursor to environmental and behavioral conditioning.

1.1.2 Aristotle: Humans as Social Beings

• Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Plato’s student, emphasized that humans are “social animals” who achieve their highest potential (eudaimonia) through participation in community life.
• He believed that moral and psychological development happens through habituation, relationships, and civic engagement.
• His idea that virtues are acquired through practice resonates with behavioral theories and habit formation research.

1.2 Social Contract Thinkers: Morality, Society, and Human Nature

1.2.1 Thomas Hobbes: The Need for Societal Control

• In the 17th century, Hobbes argued in Leviathan that humans in their natural state are driven by fear, self-preservation, and competition.
• Without a governing authority, life would be chaotic and violent. Thus, individuals form a social contract — surrendering certain freedoms to gain protection and order.
• Hobbes’ perspective is reflected in psychoanalytic theory, especially Freud’s concept of the id (impulses) needing control from the superego (moral authority).
• It also informs theories about external regulation of behavior and the psychological need for structure.

1.2.2 John Locke: Society as a Support for Rights and Growth

• Locke, in contrast to Hobbes, saw individuals as rational and cooperative. He believed society exists to protect life, liberty, and property — natural rights inherent to all people. For Locke, society supports, rather than restrains, the individual.
• Locke’s view laid the foundation for liberal and humanistic psychology, emphasizing autonomy, growth, and self-determination — key principles in Carl Rogers’ person-centered approach.

1.2.3 Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Society as a Source of Corruption

• Rousseau believed that humans are innately good and compassionate, but society introduces inequality, competition, and moral decay.
• In The Social Contract, he argued that authentic freedom comes not from submission to authority, but from aligning with the “general will” of a morally conscious society.
• Rousseau’s idea that society can alienate individuals from their authentic self is reflected in humanistic psychology and existential theories.
• Concepts such as self-actualization, alienation, and congruence draw heavily on this philosophical lineage.

1.3 Enlightenment and the Birth of Modern Social Science

• The Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries) brought forward rationality, individual rights, and scientific inquiry. Thinkers like Immanuel Kant emphasized the autonomy of the individual and the moral imperative to treat others as ends in themselves.
• This intellectual climate birthed sociology, psychology, and anthropology as distinct fields that began to investigate the individual–society relationship through empirical methods.
• The question shifted from “What is human nature?” to “How do people behave, develop, and relate within social structures?”

1.4 From Philosophy to Psychology: Emerging Theories of the Self in Society

1.4.1 Karl Marx: Social Class and Identity

• Marx saw the individual as deeply shaped by economic and social structures. For him, personal identity and consciousness are not purely internal, but shaped by material conditions, labor, and class dynamics.
• Marx’s influence is seen in critical psychology and theories of social identity, inequality, and power relations.
• It supports the idea that individuals internalize societal messages about worth, status, and ability.

1.4.2 Émile Durkheim: Society as a Psychological Force

• Durkheim introduced the concept of collective consciousness — the shared beliefs and values that bind people together.
• He showed how social institutions like religion, education, and law shape behavior, emotions, and even mental health (e.g., his study on suicide).
• Durkheim laid the groundwork for social norms theory, group psychology, and the study of cultural influences on mental health. His work bridges sociology and psychology seamlessly.

2. Functionalist View: The Social System and Its Parts

The functionalist perspective in sociology and psychology presents society as a system composed of interrelated parts that work together to maintain order, cohesion, and stability. Each part—be it institutions like the family, education, or religion—serves a specific function that contributes to the survival and equilibrium of the whole.

2.1 Society as a Structure of Norms and Roles

Individuals are born into a world where social expectations already exist. These expectations—often invisible but deeply embedded—regulate how people behave, interact, and make meaning of their experiences.

2.1.1 Norms as Guides for Behavior

• Social norms serve as the rules of the social game. They define acceptable behavior and discourage deviance.
• Saying “thank you” or “sorry” reflects learned social etiquettes.
• Obeying traffic signals is not just a legal rule but a normative behavior expected in daily life.

2.1.2 Social Roles and Identity

• Functionalism emphasizes social roles—patterns of behavior expected from individuals in specific contexts.
• Every person plays multiple roles: a student, a sibling, a friend, a citizen. These roles are not arbitrary; they exist because they serve societal needs.
• The role of a student: Learn, obey rules, and prepare for future work, which contributes to the economic system.
• The role of a parent: Provide care and emotional support, ensuring the socialization of the next generation.

2.1.3 Socialization: Internalizing the System

• Central to functionalist thought is the process of socialization—the way individuals learn and adopt the norms, roles, and values of their society.
• This process is essential for societal survival and is carried out by several agents of socialization
• Family: Instills basic values, emotional security, and early identity.
• Schools: Teach discipline, responsibility, and shared knowledge.
• Religion: Reinforces moral frameworks and collective conscience.

2.2 Role of the Individual in Functionalism

Functionalist theory does not view individuals as autonomous entities acting in isolation. Rather, individuals are seen as actors embedded in social structures, playing predetermined roles necessary for societal functioning.

2.2.1 The Self as a Role-Player

These roles contribute not only to the function of institutions (education, law enforcement) but also to the individual’s psychological identity and sense of purpose. Function and identity are thus interlinked.

• A teacher is not just a person with knowledge, but someone fulfilling the function of knowledge transmission, discipline enforcement, and value promotion.
• A police officer does more than enforce laws—they symbolize authority and societal order.

2.2.2 Harmony Between Personal and Social Goals

Functionalism assumes a general alignment between individual goals and societal needs. This perspective aligns with theories in psychology that emphasize social cohesion, moral development, and identity formation through group affiliation. For instance:

• A student who studies diligently succeeds academically, which benefits both the individual (self-development) and society (skilled workforce).
• A citizen who votes contributes to democratic governance while also exercising personal civic responsibility.

2.3 Critiques of the Functionalist View

Despite its foundational role in the development of sociology and social psychology, functionalism has faced significant critique, especially from conflict theorists, critical psychologists, and humanistic scholars.

2.3.1 Overemphasis on Stability and Order

One major critique is that functionalism prioritizes social stability at the expense of acknowledging inequality, power dynamics, and social change. It often assumes that all social institutions are inherently beneficial and necessary, ignoring the fact that:

• Some norms perpetuate discrimination or inequality (e.g., gender roles, caste hierarchies).
• Some roles reinforce oppression rather than cohesion (e.g., the role of the “obedient worker” in exploitative labor systems).

2.3.1 Neglect of Individual Agency

Functionalism tends to downplay personal agency by emphasizing conformity and adaptation to societal roles. This can lead to a view of individuals as passive recipients of social structures, rather than active agents capable of resisting, transforming, or redefining their roles.

• Individual experiences of oppression or trauma within social systems.
• The subjective self and internal psychological processes that may conflict with external expectations.

3. Interactionist View: How Society is Constructed

The interactionist view—particularly through symbolic interactionism—argues that society is not a fixed entity imposed from above, but a socially constructed reality that emerges through continuous, everyday interactions between individuals. This construction of society is micro-level, dynamic, and rooted in the shared human experience. For psychology students, this view offers deep insights into how people form their self-concepts, how identities evolve, and how norms and social expectations emerge through symbolic exchange and role-taking.

3.1 Society as a Shared Symbolic Reality

• At its core, symbolic interactionism is based on the idea that humans are meaning-making creatures. We don’t respond to the world purely based on physical stimuli; rather, we respond to the meanings that objects, actions, and people have for us.
• These meanings are not inherent—they are: Created through interaction (e.g., words, facial expressions, rituals), Negotiated in context, Continuously revised.
• For example, a classroom is not just a room with chairs and a board. It becomes a symbolic space of learning, authority, obedience, or anxiety—depending on the shared meanings between teacher and students.

3.2 Meaning Emerges Through Social Interaction

Herbert Blumer, who formalized symbolic interactionism, outlined three core principles that explain how society is constructed. So, society is constructed every day in every conversation, classroom, text message, ritual, and social media post.

• 3.2.1 Humans act toward things based on the meanings those things have for them.
  • A uniform means respect to one person, but oppression to another.
  • A national flag may inspire pride in one person and protest in another.
• 3.2.2 These meanings arise out of social interaction.
  • The meaning of a gesture (e.g., a wave, a smile, a scowl) is learned in context.
  • Children learn what “being polite” or “being rude” means based on how others respond to them.
• 3.2.3 Meanings are modified through an interpretive process.
  • We are constantly interpreting, redefining, and adjusting meanings based on new experiences.

3.3 The Role of Language and Symbols

Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the central role of language in the construction of society. Language is more than just a communication tool—it is a symbol system that enables people to share meaning, build relationships, and create culture.

• Words are symbols: “Mother,” “leader,” “failure,” or “freedom” do not have fixed meanings—they mean what society collectively agrees they mean.
• Through language, we learn norms, values, gender roles, cultural expectations, and moral boundaries.

3.4 Society as Ongoing Role-Play

George Herbert Mead introduced the idea that we construct society by taking on roles in social situations. Through this process of role-taking, we learn about social expectations and adjust our behavior accordingly.

• A child playing “teacher” learns what authority, responsibility, and knowledge transmission mean.
• As adults, we play roles like friend, parent, boss, patient, or customer. These roles are social constructs with rules we learn through practice and feedback.

3.5 Feedback Loops: The Looking-Glass Self

The construction of society and self is reciprocal. Charles Horton Cooley’s concept of the “looking-glass self” shows how:

• We imagine how others see us.
• We imagine their judgment of us.
• We develop feelings about ourselves based on these imagined judgments.

Charles Cooley’s concept of the “looking-glass self” suggests that individuals form their self-concept based on how they believe others perceive them. For instance:

• If you believe people see you as confident and capable, you will likely behave in ways that reinforce that identity.
• If you believe others see you as awkward or unworthy, your self-concept and behavior may reflect that—even if it’s not objectively true.

3.6 Constructing, Sustaining, and Resisting Society

Symbolic interactionism recognizes that society is not just constructed—but also sustained and resisted through human behavior.

• We challenge or reconstruct society when we break norms, question authority, or create new meanings (e.g., social movements, gender non-conformity, subcultures).
• We reproduce social norms every time we act “politely,” dress according to expectations, or follow group rules.

4. Culture and Personality View : The Psychological Core of Society

The culture and personality perspective is an interdisciplinary approach that examines the deep interconnection between the internal psychological world of the individual and the external cultural world of society. This school of thought recognizes that the mind and self are not formed in a vacuum; rather, they are shaped by cultural practices, values, norms, and expectations. In turn, individuals reinforce, reinterpret, or challenge these cultural patterns—making society a dynamic space of mutual influence between the person and their culture.

4.1 How Individual and Society Affect Each Other

4.1.1 How Society Affects the Individual:

1. Cultural Values Shape Personality:
   • Each society promotes specific values (e.g., independence, obedience, harmony), which become internalized by individuals during childhood.
   • These values influence emotional responses, moral reasoning, and interpersonal behavior.
2. Social Institutions Reinforce Norms:
   • Family, religion, education, and media instill norms and expectations that guide thought patterns and behavior.
   • For example, collectivist societies may promote cooperation and group identity, influencing self-concept and motivation.
3. Language and Symbols Construct Meaning:
   • Culture provides the tools (like language, stories, and rituals) that structure how individuals perceive and interpret the world.

4.1.2 How the Individual Affects Society:

1. Individual Behavior Reinforces or Challenges Norms:
   • When people act in culturally expected ways, they help maintain the social structure.
   • Conversely, non-conforming individuals can initiate social change by questioning or resisting norms.
2. Creative and Intellectual Contributions:
   • Artists, thinkers, leaders, and innovators introduce new ideas that influence cultural evolution (e.g., feminism, civil rights).
3. Socialization of Future Generations:
   • Individuals act as parents, teachers, and mentors, shaping the next generation’s cultural values and personality traits.

4.2 Culture Shapes Personality

Culture is not merely a set of customs or traditions; it is a living, psychological environment that penetrates deeply into the psyche. From the moment we are born, we begin a process of enculturation—gradually learning what it means to be a “normal” person in our society. Key Points:

• In collectivist cultures (like Japan or China), children are taught to value group harmony, obedience, modesty, and relational responsibility. The self-concept here tends to be interdependent, where personal identity is closely linked to family, community, and social roles.
• In individualist cultures (like the U.S. or Western Europe), independence, self-expression, and personal achievement are emphasized. People are socialized to think of themselves as autonomous selves with unique desires and life paths.

From a psychological perspective, these cultural models influence: These patterns aren’t biologically predetermined—they are socially and emotionally learned through cultural participation.

• Attachment styles
• Moral development
• Coping mechanisms
• Goals and motivations

4.3 Modal Personality

The concept of the “modal personality”—first used by anthropologist Cora DuBois—refers to the most frequently occurring personality traits or behavioral patterns within a culture. Rather than suggesting everyone in a culture is the same, it indicates what personality traits are most rewarded, reinforced, and normalized in a given society. Examples:

• In American culture, competitiveness, assertiveness, and extroversion are often seen as ideal traits. These qualities are cultivated through school, media, sports, and economic systems.
• In Balinese culture (studied by Margaret Mead), children are raised in emotionally soothing and socially cooperative environments. Emotional restraint and group harmony are encouraged, producing a modal personality characterized by calmness and social sensitivity.

This insight is crucial for psychology students, especially when studying cross-cultural psychology, cultural competence in therapy, and clinical diagnostics, as it reminds us that “normal” or “healthy” behavior is culturally relative.

4.4 Enculturation and Emotional Expression

Culture not only shapes how we think but also how we feel—and how we express those feelings. Emotional expression is not universal; it is governed by cultural display rules. For example:

• In East Asian cultures, where social harmony and face-saving are paramount, emotional restraint is valued. Anger or sadness might be suppressed in public to avoid disrupting group cohesion.
• In contrast, Latin American or Mediterranean cultures may encourage emotional expressiveness, where warmth, passion, and direct emotional communication are normalized.

Psychologically, this is taught through enculturation—the lifelong process by which individuals become functioning members of their culture. From early childhood:

• Parents model emotional norms.
• Children learn what emotions are acceptable, when to express them, and in what ways.
• Schools, media, religion, and peer groups reinforce emotional scripts.

4.5 Culture–Personality Feedback Loop

One of the most important contributions of the culture and personality perspective is the idea of a reciprocal relationship between the individual and culture. While culture shapes the individual, individuals also shape culture. Here’s how the loop works:

1. Culture influences behavior by setting norms, expectations, and values.
2. Individuals internalize these norms and express them through roles, relationships, and rituals.
3. Over time, individuals question, reinterpret, and even rebel against cultural standards.
4. This can lead to cultural evolution, adaptation, or transformation.

Examples:

• Social reformers and activists often come from within a culture but challenge existing norms—like Gandhi in India, or Martin Luther King Jr. in the U.S.
• The rise of the LGBTQ+ rights movement, or increasing awareness of mental health, are driven by individuals whose personal experiences and advocacy efforts reshape societal attitudes.
• Innovations in art, language, education, and even parenting practices show how the individual mind can alter collective consciousness.

5.1 Ecological Perspective: Inter-Relatedness of the Individual and Society

The ecological perspective, most notably developed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, provides a holistic framework for understanding how individuals are shaped by and also shape the various environments in which they live. This perspective emphasizes the dynamic interplay between personal development and environmental systems, offering a comprehensive view of how human behavior and mental processes are deeply embedded in social, cultural, economic, and physical contexts.

5.1 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner proposed that human development is influenced by nested systems—each containing the other like Russian dolls. These systems interact with the individual in reciprocal ways, meaning the individual influences the environment, and the environment shapes the individual. The Five Environmental Systems:

• 5.1.1 Microsystem – The immediate setting where the individual has direct interaction.
  • Includes family, school, peers, and neighborhood.
  • For example, a child’s self-esteem is influenced by parental warmth or peer bullying.
  • These environments foster social roles and emotional learning.
• 5.1.2 Mesosystem – The interconnections between microsystems.
  • How home life affects school performance, or how teacher-parent relationships influence the child.
  • Mental health can improve or worsen depending on the harmony or conflict between these contexts.
• 5.1.3 Exosystem – External environments that indirectly influence the individual.
  • Parent’s workplace, community services, local media.
  • A child may be affected by a parent’s job stress or a community’s lack of healthcare resources.
• 5.1.4 Macrosystem – The broader cultural, political, and economic forces.
  • Cultural values (e.g., collectivism vs. individualism), ideologies, laws, and policies.
  • This system shapes how individuals see themselves and others: gender roles, racial identity, religious beliefs, etc.
• 5.1.5 Chronosystem – The dimension of time.
  • Life transitions, historical events (e.g., pandemics, wars), generational shifts.
  • For example, growing up during COVID-19 will affect children’s social and emotional development differently than previous generations.

5.2 Interrelatedness: A Two-Way Street

One of the most important insights from the ecological perspective is that individuals and society are mutually interdependent. That is:

• Society influences individuals through systemic structures, cultural expectations, and environmental opportunities or barriers.
• Individuals influence society by adapting, resisting, innovating, or challenging existing norms and structures.

Examples:

• A nurturing school environment can foster empathy and confidence, which in turn shapes the child’s contributions to their community.
• A mentally resilient person may start a support group or campaign for policy change after experiencing discrimination or trauma.

5.3 Applications to Psychology

The ecological perspective offers several insights relevant to different psychological domains:

5.3.1 Developmental Psychology:

• Children’s cognitive and emotional growth is not solely the result of biological or parental influence—it is shaped by schools, neighborhoods, digital environments, and even economic policies.

5.3.2 Clinical and Counseling Psychology:

• Mental health interventions must consider not just the individual’s thoughts and emotions, but also environmental stressors (poverty, violence, systemic oppression) and support systems (family, community networks).

5.3.3 Community Psychology:

• Prevention programs (e.g., suicide prevention, addiction recovery) benefit from ecological thinking: targeting individual coping skills, peer influences, and societal stigma at once.

5.3.4 Educational Psychology:

• A student struggling academically might not just need tutoring; they might be dealing with unstable housing, language barriers, or disconnected family systems—factors in various ecological layers.

5.4 Challenges and Critiques

• Complexity: The ecological model is broad and multi-layered, which can make it difficult to isolate variables or identify simple cause-effect relationships.
• Implementation: Translating ecological theory into practice (especially in under-resourced contexts) may require cross-disciplinary collaboration and political will.
• Individual Differences: While systems are influential, not every individual responds the same way to similar environments; personal agency and resilience must also be accounted for.

6 How Social Institutions Shaping the Individual

Every person is embedded in a social context—shaped by institutions that structure human life. Institutions such as family, education, media, religion, and the state play a fundamental role in socialization, shaping our self-concept, norms, emotional expression, and even mental health trajectories.

6.1 Family: The First Psychological Environment

The family is the foundational institution in an individual’s life. From birth, it serves as the first agent of socialization, teaching children language, emotional regulation, social roles, and cultural values.

• Attachment Theory (John Bowlby): Early emotional bonds with caregivers profoundly influence emotional security, trust, and future relationships.
• Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind):
  • Authoritative parenting (high warmth, high control) leads to higher self-esteem, better emotional regulation, and academic success.
  • Authoritarian parenting (low warmth, high control) may result in obedience, but also fear, anxiety, or rebellion.
  • Permissive parenting (high warmth, low control) can foster creativity but may lead to poor impulse control and entitlement.
• Family Structure and Dynamics: Divorce, single parenting, or extended families affect developmental trajectories. Conflict or neglect within families can increase the risk of anxiety, depression, or antisocial behavior.

6.2 Education: Socializing Minds and Selves

The education system is a formal institution that not only imparts knowledge but molds behavior, discipline, and societal participation. Schools are where children begin to internalize social norms, develop self-concept, and experience achievement or marginalization.

6.2.1 Psychological Insights:

• Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget): School supports transitions through cognitive stages (e.g., concrete to formal operational thinking).
• Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): Children imitate peers and teachers, learning social behaviors, gender roles, and conflict resolution.
• Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan): Environments that foster autonomy, competence, and relatedness enhance intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being.

6.2.2 The Hidden Curriculum:

These hidden norms shape how students conform or resist social expectations, influencing identity and psychological resilience. Beyond the formal syllabus, schools transmit unspoken values:

• Punctuality
• Obedience to authority
• Competition and hierarchy
• Gendered expectations

6.2.3 Educational Inequality:

Access to quality education is influenced by socioeconomic class, caste, gender, and geography, creating systemic barriers:

• Children in under-resourced schools may face learned helplessness, lower self-esteem, and chronic stress.
• Those who succeed despite challenges may develop grit, agency, and leadership, showcasing the interaction of resilience and context.

6.3 Media: The Digital Mirror of the Self

In the digital age, mass media—especially social media—has become one of the most pervasive and powerful institutions affecting individual psychology.

6.3.1 Psychological Effects:

• Social Comparison Theory (Festinger): Platforms like Instagram and TikTok can lead to upward comparisons, contributing to body dissatisfaction, anxiety, and depressive symptoms.
• Identity Formation (Erikson): Adolescents and young adults often experiment with self-presentation online, shaping their sense of identity.
• Dopamine Reward Cycles: Social media use activates reward pathways in the brain, leading to addiction-like behaviors.

6.3.2 Media and Mental Health:

• Cyberbullying, misinformation, and unrealistic beauty or success standards can negatively impact self-worth and emotional well-being.
• However, media also offers supportive communities, access to mental health resources, and platforms for self-expression and activism.

6.4 Religion and State: Moral Anchors and Identity Structures

Both religion and the state provide broader frameworks for meaning, morality, and civic identity. These institutions often provide moral guidelines and shape civic identities. They can be both liberating (through community and values) and constraining (through dogma or authority).

6.4.1 Religion:

Religious institutions often serve as sources of:

• Moral guidance (e.g., concepts of right and wrong, sin and virtue)
• Rituals for coping with grief, stress, and life transitions
• Community belonging, which can act as a buffer against loneliness or existential anxiety

However, religious dogma can also contribute to:

• Guilt, shame, or fear (especially around sexuality, gender roles, or nonconformity)
• Internal conflict in individuals with differing beliefs or identities (e.g., LGBTQ+ youth in conservative faith communities)

From a psychological standpoint, religion can function as both:

• A protective factor (spirituality and resilience)
• A risk factor (conflict, exclusion, or internalized stigma)

6.4.2 The State:

The state shapes individuals in more structural ways:

• Laws influence behaviors (e.g., criminal justice, marriage, education, healthcare).
• Civic identity—as a citizen, voter, or taxpayer—is cultivated through education and media.
• Policy decisions (welfare, healthcare, reservation/quota systems) directly impact mental health outcomes, particularly among marginalized populations.