Understanding Learning A Deep Dive into What, How, and Why We Learn

Learning is broadly defined as the process of acquiring new knowledge, understanding, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. Learning is one of the most essential and defining characteristics of human beings. From the moment we are born to the final days of our lives, we are constantly learning. Yet, despite its central role in human development, learning is often taken for granted.

What does it truly mean to learn? Why do we learn certain things and not others? How do we decide the methods by which we learn? What inner or outer forces influence these choices? This article explores these questions in depth, examining the concept of learning from psychological, philosophical, neurological, and sociocultural perspectives.

1. What is Learning

Learning can be broadly defined as the process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior. It encompasses a wide range of activities: acquiring new skills, understanding complex theories, forming habits, and even altering our attitudes or values.

1.1 Classical Definitions and Theories

Learning has been defined in numerous ways across disciplines. A widely cited psychological definition comes from Kimble (1961), who defined learning as “a relatively permanent change in behavior potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.” This definition highlights the behavioral aspect of learning and the importance of reinforcement

• 1.1.1 Behaviorist View: Pioneered by theorists like B.F. Skinner and John Watson, learning is seen as a change in observable behavior due to conditioning. Classical conditioning (Pavlov) and operant conditioning (Skinner) stress stimulus-response patterns and reinforcement mechanisms.
• 1.1.2 Cognitivist View: Cognitivism, championed by Piaget, Vygotsky, and later by cognitive scientists, views learning as an internal mental process. Here, learning involves acquiring, storing, and retrieving information. Memory, attention, and problem-solving are central.
• Constructivist View: Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner emphasize that learners construct knowledge actively, through experiences and reflection. This view positions learners as agents in their own development.
• Humanistic View: Humanistic psychologists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow focus on personal growth, motivation, and the intrinsic value of learning. Learning, in this view, is tied to self-actualization and the realization of potential.
• Socio-cultural View: Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural tools in shaping learning. Learning is mediated through language, community, and historical context.

1.2 Types of Learning

Understanding the different types of learning is essential for improving teaching methods, developing effective therapies, and designing adaptive technologies.

1. Classical Conditioning: Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning where a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response due to its association with a stimulus that already produces that response. Pavlov’s experiment demonstrated that dogs could learn to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound had been repeatedly paired with the presentation of food. Classical conditioning illustrates how reflexive behaviors can be modified through experience, influencing later theories of learning and behavior change.
2. Operant Conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner, operant conditioning is learning through consequences. It involves behaviors that are strengthened or weakened depending on the outcomes they produce. In Skinner’s experiments, rats learned to press a lever to receive food. The frequency of their behavior increased when rewarded and decreased when punished.
3. Observational Learning: Also known as social learning or modeling, observational learning occurs by watching and imitating others. This form of learning was championed by Albert Bandura, who argued that internal mental states and external social models both influence learning. In Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment, children who observed aggressive adult models were more likely to exhibit similar aggressive behaviors.
4. Cognitive Learning: Unlike behaviorist models that focus on observable behaviors, cognitive learning theories emphasize the internal mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding. A student learning how to solve a math problem by understanding the principles behind it rather than memorizing a formula.
5. Constructivist Learning: Constructivism views learning as an active, constructive process. Learners build new knowledge based on their experiences and prior understanding. Constructivist learning fosters deep understanding and transfer of knowledge by engaging learners in active meaning-making rather than passive information absorption.
6. Experiential Learning: Proposed by David Kolb, experiential learning emphasizes learning through direct experience, followed by reflection and experimentation. Fieldwork and internships, Laboratory experiments, Role-playing and simulations etc.
7. Latent Learning: Latent learning refers to knowledge that is acquired but not immediately expressed in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it. Edward Tolman, who showed that rats could form cognitive maps of a maze without reinforcement. A student who seemingly does not pay attention in class but performs well on an exam, revealing hidden learning.
8. Insight Learning: Insight learning involves a sudden realization or understanding of a problem’s solution. It is characterized by an “Aha!” moment rather than gradual trial-and-error. A student stuck on a puzzle suddenly sees the solution after stepping away from it. Insight learning reflects the creative and intuitive nature of the human mind and is essential in areas requiring innovation and abstract thinking.
9. Habituation and Sensitization: Habituation is decreased response to a repeated stimulus (e.g., ignoring a ticking clock) & Sensitization is Increased response to a repeated or strong stimulus (e.g., becoming more startled by a noise over time). These are the simplest forms of learning that do not involve associations between stimuli. These forms of learning demonstrate the nervous system’s ability to adapt to environmental stimuli, preserving attention for more relevant events.

1.3 The Dimensions of Learning

Learning is not a singular, linear process but a multi-dimensional construct that encompasses cognitive, emotional, social, and metacognitive components. One widely used framework was developed by Robert J. Marzano and colleagues, which identifies five distinct yet interdependent dimensions.

• Positive Attitudes and Perceptions: This dimension emphasizes the emotional and motivational context of learning. Students must feel emotionally safe, accepted, and valued in order to fully engage in the learning process. Draws from humanistic psychology (e.g., Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs) and self-determination theory, which assert that motivation, belonging, and emotional well-being are prerequisites for effective learning.
• Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge: This dimension refers to the initial stage of learning new information. Learners must take in new content and integrate it with what they already know. Based in cognitive psychology, particularly information processing theory, which describes how learners encode, store, and retrieve knowledge.
• Extending and Refining Knowledge: After acquiring knowledge, learners deepen their understanding by analyzing, comparing, classifying, and evaluating it. Draws from Bloom’s Taxonomy (particularly the analysis and evaluation levels) and constructivist learning theory, which sees learners as active constructors of knowledge.
• Using Knowledge Meaningfully: This dimension focuses on applying knowledge in real-life or novel situations. It integrates content learning with purpose, creativity, and relevance. This dimension is rooted in experiential learning theory (Kolb), situated cognition, and problem-based learning. It highlights the role of context, engagement, and relevance in transferring knowledge.
• Productive Habits of Mind: The final dimension addresses the development of self-regulatory and metacognitive strategies that support lifelong learning. Grounded in metacognitive theory, executive functioning, and self-regulated learning models (e.g., Zimmerman), this dimension supports autonomy, reflection, and strategic learning.

2. What We Choose to Learn

Learning is not just about absorbing information; it involves making choices about content, goals, and paths. The selection of what to learn is shaped by a combination of personal interests, societal expectations, cultural values, and practical needs.

2.1 Foundations of Learning Choices

• Evolutionary and Biological Drives : Humans are biologically wired to learn certain things more easily than others. Language acquisition, facial recognition, and basic motor coordination are examples of learning tasks that appear to have evolutionary advantages.
• Developmental Stages and Interests : According to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, the kinds of concepts we are capable of learning shift with age. Erikson’s psychosocial stages also highlight how life tasks at different ages influence what we are motivated to learn.
• Cultural and Social Contexts : Cultural expectations and social roles heavily influence learning. For instance, in some societies, communal knowledge such as agricultural practices may be prioritized, while in others, scientific or technological knowledge is more emphasized. The curriculum in educational institutions is also a reflection of social and political priorities.
• Economic and Practical Considerations : Learners often select content based on its perceived utility. Professional development, employability, and career goals are key motivators. With the rise of the knowledge economy, technical and digital skills have become high-priority learning targets.
• Intrinsic Interests and Personal Values : In the humanistic tradition, Carl Rogers emphasized “significant learning” — learning that is meaningful and personally relevant. Our passions, curiosities, and sense of purpose often guide what we decide to learn deeply.

2.2 Sociocultural Influences on Learning Choices

• Family and Early Socialization : The family unit is the first and most influential learning environment. It shapes our earliest beliefs about what is worth learning. Parents often pass down attitudes toward education and knowledge. A family that values entrepreneurship may raise children interested in business. In many cultures, girls are encouraged to pursue caregiving or artistic fields, while boys are pushed toward science and leadership roles.
• Peer Influence and Social Identity : People often choose to learn what helps them fit into or gain status within their peer group. earning choices are often made to align with the norms of one’s social or cultural group. People often resist learning things that feel “foreign” or misaligned with their social identity.
• Schooling and Institutional Norms : Schools are powerful social institutions that structure what is considered important to learn. Beyond official subjects, schools teach social norms like punctuality, obedience, competition, and gender roles. A student from a working-class background may be steered toward vocational training, while middle-class students are encouraged toward university.
• Socioeconomic Status and Access : Social class plays a major role in what people have access to learn and therefore what they are likely to choose. Children from low-income families may not see advanced education or certain careers as realistic options. Choices are not made in a vacuum—they are bounded by what is available, accessible, and visible.
• Media & Technology Influence : In the digital age, media plays a central role in shaping what people choose to learn. YouTube, MOOCs, and social media expand exposure to global knowledge but also create trends and biases. A teenager exposed to tech influencers on TikTok may choose to learn coding or AI, even in a rural setting.
• Religion and Spiritual Beliefs : eligious frameworks shape not just what is learned but also why and how. In many cultures, learning scripture is a primary educational goal. Religions influence what behaviors and values are seen as important. In some contexts, religious views may support or challenge scientific learning.
• Political and Ideological Influence : Governments and political movements often control curricula to shape collective identity and ideology. History is taught in ways that promote national pride or political ideology. Education may include political participation, propaganda, or patriotism.

3. How We Learn

Individuals differ in their preferred learning methods, often categorized as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or reading/writing learners. However, research suggests that effective learning is less about fixed styles and more about adapting strategies to the content and context.

3.1 How the Mind Acquires Knowledge

• Learning Styles and Modalities : While controversial, the idea of learning styles — such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic — persists in educational discourse. These describe preferred modes of receiving information, though research suggests that adaptability and strategy use are more important than fixed styles.
• Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning : Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking.” Learners who understand their own cognitive processes tend to be more effective. Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated learning outlines a cycle of planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s learning efforts.
• Social Learning and Collaborative Models : Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasized learning through observation, imitation, and modeling. Today, peer learning, group projects, and online learning communities illustrate how we increasingly learn with and from others.
• Experiential and Problem-Based Learning : Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory highlights the importance of learning through experience — concrete engagement, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL) offer real-world contexts for learners to engage with content.
• Digital and Technological Platforms : E-learning, gamification, and personalized learning algorithms are reshaping how we learn. Adaptive learning technologies use data to adjust content to learners’ pace and preferences. MOOCs, YouTube tutorials, and educational apps exemplify the rise of self-directed, technology-mediated learning.

3.2 How Psychological Elements Influence Learning

• Intrinsic Motivation : Self-Determination Theory (SDT) explains that when we are intrinsically motivated, we choose to learn based on internal satisfaction, curiosity, and personal interest. Learning photography for creative joy, studying philosophy to understand life’s big questions. The psychological drives for this behavior are autonomy, mastery, and purpose.
• Extrinsic Motivation : When motivated extrinsically, people choose to learn to gain rewards or avoid punishment. Studying for a test to get a good grade, learning coding to get a high-paying job. The psychological drives for this behavior are approval, financial gain, social recognition
• Expectancy Value : Jacquelynne Eccles’ theory suggests that learners engage in activities they expect to succeed in and that they value—whether they find them important, useful, or enjoyable. For example, a student might avoid studying chemistry if they believe they’re not good at it, even if the subject is essential to their career goals. The theory emphasizes two key factors that shape learning choices: self-concept, or one’s belief in their own abilities, and subjective task value, or the personal importance attached to the task.
• Cognitive Load and Prior Knowledge : According to Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller) and Schema Theory, individuals tend to choose learning tasks that align with their current cognitive capacity. Tasks that are too easy may lead to boredom, while overly difficult ones can cause cognitive overload and frustration. As a result, people are naturally drawn to activities that fall within their zone of proximal development (Vygotsky) and build upon existing mental schemas (Piaget, Anderson). In essence, we prefer to learn what we can process confidently and efficiently.
• Identity and Self-Concept : Learning choices are closely tied to identity formation, a concept initially explored by Erik Erikson and later expanded through James Marcia’s identity status theory. The subjects individuals choose to study often reflect how they see themselves or who they aspire to become. For example, a person who identifies as a “scientist” is more likely to pursue studies in physics or biology, while someone who sees themselves as an activist may be drawn to disciplines like law, sociology, or political science.
• Emotional Experiences : Our emotional history with certain subjects plays a crucial role in shaping our learning choices. High anxiety, low motivation, and a poor self-image can create an emotional barrier known as the “affective filter,” which inhibits learning. For instance, a child who was humiliated in a math class may avoid the subject for years, while a student who was praised for their writing may develop a lasting love for literature. Since memory, learning, and emotion are closely connected, we tend to choose subjects linked to positive emotional experiences.
• Future Goals and Aspirations : Many learners choose areas of study based on job prospects, employability, or entrepreneurship. Goal-setting theory suggests that learners are motivated to learn what aligns with their vision of success.
• Environmental and Institutional Pressures : Standardized curricula, entrance exams, societal status symbols (like prestigious degrees), and labor market demands shape our learning choices. Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of “cultural capital” illustrates how learners from different social backgrounds access and value different types of learning.

3.3 How Brain Influence Learning

Recent developments in neuroscience have advanced our understanding of learning through brain imaging and cognitive neuropsychology. Concepts like neuroplasticity show that the brain reorganizes itself through learning experiences. The hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala play pivotal roles in different types of learning and memory consolidation. Here are key brain structures involved in learning.

• Hippocampus: Central to forming, organizing, and storing new declarative memories (facts, concepts, events). Converts short-term memory to long-term memory; critical for learning contexts and spatial learning.
• Amygdala: Processes emotions, especially fear and reward. Involved in emotional learning, fear conditioning, and memory modulation – emotions can enhance memory retention. e.g a traumatic event is remembered more vividly due to emotional arousal.
• Prefrontal Cortex (PFC): Executive functions—planning, attention, working memory, decision-making. Regulates goal-directed learning, attention control, and problem-solving.
• Basal Ganglia: Motor control and procedural learning (skills and habits). Enables automaticity—e.g., riding a bike, typing without looking.
• Cerebellum: Coordination, precision, timing of movement. Plays a key role in motor learning and conditioning (like eye-blink reflexes). Also Supports Implicit learning of patterns and sequences.

3.3 How Mental Mechanisms Influencing Learning

• Reward Systems and Dopamine: Learning choices are influenced by neural reward systems, especially those involving dopamine pathways. The ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens are activated when a person anticipates or experiences rewards. Dopamine release enhances motivation, attention, and memory encoding, making certain learning experiences more appealing and memorable.
• The Role of the Prefrontal Cortex : The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved in decision-making, planning, and executive function. When individuals deliberate over learning choices (e.g., choosing between a math course or an art elective), the PFC evaluates potential outcomes, goal alignment, and effort required. The ability to inhibit impulses and direct focus—is also governed by the PFC, which plays a critical role in sustaining learning tasks aligned with long-term goals.
• Neuroplasticity and Learning Potential : Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to change based on experience—enables individuals to form new learning pathways. Neuroplasticity also responds to choice—when learners select their own tasks, engagement and retention improve, as shown in fMRI studies (Murayama et al., 2015).
• Attentional Networks : Attention is a limited cognitive resource. Learning choices are filtered through attentional systems, particularly, supports goal-directed focus & responds to novelty and unexpected stimuli. These systems bias individuals toward stimuli that are salient, emotionally relevant, or aligned with internal goals shaping what they are likely to choose to learn.

4. Why Do We Learn

We choose to learn something for a variety of reasons that can be grouped into psychological, social, personal, and practical motivations. Why do some students thrive in math and others resist it altogether? From a psychological perspective, our learning choices are shaped by a blend of cognitive functions, motivational dynamics, emotional experiences, identity development, and social contexts.

4.1 Motivation and Goal Drivers

Motivation is a central factor in deciding what to learn. It can be intrinsic (driven by personal satisfaction or curiosity) or extrinsic (driven by external rewards or pressures). Goals, whether short-term (passing an exam) or long-term (career advancement), guide learning choices.

• Curiosity and Intrinsic Motivation : Curiosity is a core psychological drive. It pushes us to explore, ask questions, and seek understanding. People learn a musical instrument or a new language out of sheer love for it, not for grades or jobs.
• Achieve Personal or External Goals : People often learn to reach a specific goal—such as passing an exam, gaining a promotion, or mastering a skill. Goal Orientation Theory explains that some people are mastery-oriented (focused on learning itself), while others are performance-oriented (focused on outcomes like grades or status).
• To Make Sense of the World : Cognitive psychology shows we are meaning-making creatures: we want to organize, explain, and predict our experiences. This is especially true in children, whose early learning is driven by the need to make sense of new stimuli. Learning about climate change to understand global events.
• To Shape Our Identity : According to identity theory, learning is part of how we form and express our sense of self. We often choose to learn things that align with who we think we are or who we want to become. A teenager learning guitar to identify as a musician
• To Survive or Succeed : We often choose to learn things that increase our economic, academic, or survival value. This is guided by extrinsic motivation—learning driven by external rewards such as money, grades, or job security.
• To Grow and Change : Learning can be a transformational process—a way to heal, mature, or reinvent ourselves. Transformative learning theory (Mezirow) suggests that adults often choose to learn when faced with disorienting dilemmas that push them to reflect and change their beliefs.

4.2 Societal and Cultural Drivers

We often choose what and how to learn based on societal and cultural drivers because learning is not an isolated, individual process—it is deeply embedded within the norms, values, expectations, and opportunities presented by the social and cultural contexts we inhabit.

• Social Norms and Expectations : We learn what society deems important, social norms define what knowledge or skills are considered valuable, respectable, or necessary. In many cultures, STEM education is emphasized as a path to success, influencing students to pursue science and technology even if they are personally inclined toward the arts
• Cultural Values and Belief Systems : Every culture passes down a unique knowledge system, including language, traditions, history, and worldviews. Cultural values shape what is prioritized in education. some cultures emphasize memorization and discipline, others value critical thinking or creativity.
• Identity and Social Belonging : Humans have an innate need for belonging. We often learn things that help us feel part of a community or group. This includes adopting the language, slang, customs, and skills valued by peers or a subculture.
• Economic Structures and Labor Market Demands : Societal structures, like capitalism or industrial economies, strongly influence learning choices. People often pursue knowledge or credentials that align with job market demands, whether or not they’re intrinsically interested in the subject.
• National and Global Agendas : Governments and global organizations often promote certain learning areas (e.g., climate education, digital skills) to prepare citizens for societal needs. A national policy promoting bilingualism leads more students to learn foreign languages.

4.3 Identity and Self-Actualization Drivers

Learning is also a means of self-expression and personal growth. Humanistic and existential psychology emphasize the role of learning in achieving self-actualization, meaning, and autonomy

• Learning as Identity Formation : We learn not only to know, but to become. According to identity theory, learning helps us form new identities, strengthen existing ones, or transition between them—such as becoming a scientist, embracing creativity, or shifting from student to entrepreneur. Learning shapes who we are and who we aspire to be.
• Self-Concept and Consistency : eople are psychologically motivated to act in ways that align with their self-concept — the set of beliefs they hold about themselves. If someone sees themselves as a compassionate helper, they may choose to learn nursing or social work. If someone identifies as innovative and tech-savvy, they might learn programming or design.
• Learning as Self-Expression : Learning allows individuals to express who they are or who they aspire to be. This is especially true in artistic, philosophical, and creative domains. Someone who identifies as spiritual may study meditation, yoga, or theology — not for career reasons but to express and deepen that identity.
• Existential and Philosophical Drives : Some individuals are driven to learn by existential questions such as “What is the meaning of life?”, “Who am I?”, and “What happens after death?” Their motivation stems not from practical needs, but from a deep desire to explore life’s fundamental mysteries. These learners often turn to disciplines like philosophy, religion, psychology, art, or literature in their quest for understanding, seeking insight rather than utility in their pursuit of knowledge.
• Role Models & Aspirational Identities : We often choose what to learn based on who we admire or want to emulate. A child inspired by a firefighter learns emergency training. teen inspired by an activist may learn about justice and law.
• Healing and Personal Growth : Many choose to learn as a form of psychological healing or transformation. A survivor of abuse might study trauma psychology. Someone with a painful past might learn writing or art as a therapeutic process.